Desistance Rehabilitation And Reintegration

Desistance Rehabilitation And Re integratingWhen a savage is competent-bodied to stop the behavior that characterizes his or her criminal activities, the gradual movement involved is what is termed as desistance. Apart from the accompaniment that it has practical applications for probation workers with criminal offenders from the community, desistance also has a strong link and connection in the rehabilitation of a criminal. However, theories of desistance when comp argond to the theories of the onset of criminal behavior set ab off been frequently neglected and underdeveloped in the history of criminology (Smith, 2007). It is wherefore a good sign when studies of desistance increase drastically especially since the last twenty years this has been in particular noticeable after the phylogenesis of the life course theory that was done by Sampson and Laub. But as Piquero (2004103) explains, stickd look has been signific antly run intoed by methodological and theoretical is sues. nevertheless, theorists in the field withdraw not been able to come up with a universal definition of desistance. Consequently this paper designs to ready a workable definition of desistance and to furthermore give a preview of the updated main facts and theories of desistance.Understanding desistanceOxford Dictionary defines desistance as, to desist or to stop doing something cease or abstain. Applying this definition to criminology is all the same a bit technical. The big question is usually about time, if a criminal is able to stop a certain criminal behavior for four weeks for example, is it correct to classify him or her as an strained case of desistance? What is the recommended time for one to be sure that he or she is lighten from the aversion? If future behavior rout out best be predicted by looking at gone behavior, and if recidivism and relapse are the rule rather than the exception, thence how does a precise definition of desistance be formulated? (LeBel e t al, 2004). Laub and Sampson (2001) as a matter of fact agree that a definition of desistance cannot be made, they support that the questions in a particular enquiry best deduce the definition of desistance for the researcher (cited in Maruna, 2006). fit to Shadd Maruna, for a habitual offender, any recognizable time worn out(p) without doing any crime is called primary desistance.However studies on recidivism and relapse cannot be complete without an outline of achieving long term desistance. Maruna goes on to at that placefore state that un inbred desistance is when a criminal is able to remove his individuality and take an almost permanent direction to a life free of the initial crime that was a norm in his behavior. Studying secondary desistance is important as it seeks to understand how initial offenders can be able to keep a distance from their crimes. Desistance is thusly not the final depart of the end of a crime it is actually the process that is gradual and continu ous till the end effect of winnerful desistance. Sampson and Laub (2001) confess that there is a huge difference between the stopping an offence and the continuous budge to a crime free lifestyle. They mark that as compared to theories of offending, desistance theories nominate not yet been fully studied and explained, however desistance is now understood as the procedure necessary for acquiring an accomplished state of non-offence.It is important that a criminal who wants to change mustiness be testamenting to change his or her self identity and concept to be able to grasp the full consideration of change. Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) explain that on the contrary it is a viridity occurrence to find ex-offenders who make undergone desistance commit other acts of deviance, (cited in Sampson and Laub, 2003 298). Desistance is therefore basically the ability of a former criminal to be able to completely withdraw from a crime and to maintain being in that state regardless of the challenges involved when nerve-racking to keep away. Some of these challenges are well-disposed stigma, return to criminogenic environments after release from prison, homelessness, addiction, and hold career and educational opportunities (Richards and Jones, 2004).Career criminals are those who have been criminal offenders for a considerably long period of time (Maruna, 2001). According to Laub and Sampson (2003), career criminals rather than small time offenders should be given more attention in researches on desistance. However another study problem in the field of battle of desistance is the availability of completely made offenders in desistance to the researchers in the field (Maruna, 2001 Burnett, 2004). Total desistance to many ex-offenders is instead a hard step as most of them usually end up going certify to their initial criminal tendencies (Piquero, 2004).Addiction is a in integrity significant factor that is more oft overlooked yet its contribution to the whole process of desistance has a major impact on the ability of a criminal to completely change. It is therefore important to understand the connection between the dickens before arriving at a definition of desistance. From a number of researches it has been know that the link between addiction and criminal activities is actually very strong. A dose addict is therefore more likely to engage in crimes (Maruna, 2001). Moreover the cause of addiction and iniquity are as a matter of fact very similar. Frisher and Beckett (2006141) found that a large percentage of drug abusers are very active members in criminal gangs.Therefore, when defining desistance, it is necessary to note that the complete resistance of some(prenominal) criminal offending and drug abuse must be realized (Maruna, 2001). To achieve the purpose of this paper desistance can be described and defined as the initial process freeing quality desistance from drug abuse, viciousness and other forms of deviance for an ex- criminal. Quality desistance in this case is the is the total termination of previous criminal behaviors together with other contingent forms of deviance like drug abuse for at least ten years accompanied by a change in the identity of an individual.Desistance theoriesAgeingAge has been found to be a significant factor in criminology, as one grows older it is noted that their level of criminality greatly reduces. (Smith, 2007 Sampson and Laub, 2003 Gluecks, 1943 cited in Sampson and Laub, 2003 Gottfredson and Hirschi, 1990 cited in Sampson and Laub, 2003). In 2000 in the United Kingdom 19 year olds were found to have committed crimes fifty times more those which men of over fifty years had committed. According to research the total lifespan of a criminal is usually general considering factors like early deaths, imprisonment and when a criminal is evolving to avoid being sight (Maruna, 2006).In a research of 411 criminal males in London, Farrington (1990) found that as the crim inals grew older, their crimes reduced greatly with time but this however depended on different types of crimes (cited in Smith, 2007). For example, burglary is at its highest at age 20 while fraud and drug abuse offences record their highest at the age of 25 all the way to 30 as burglary sets on a steady decline afterwards. Nevertheless for the persistent hardcore criminals into their 70s, there was a clear connection between their age and their crime rates fit in to studies by Laub and Sampson (2003, 2005, 2005b). Furthermore they realized that alcohol and drug offences were their highest in the mid- thirties as compared to other offences. They finally came to a conclusion that both age and the type of crimes affect the whole process of desistance as well. However there have been different explanations to the not clear age crime curve. developmental criminologists have been able to link the age of an offender and the capability of total desistance to childhood related issues. (Mu lver et al, 1988 cited in Sampson and Laub, 2003 Nagin, 2005 cited in Sampson and Laub, 2005a) Offenders are therefore divided into both distinct groups, the adolescent and the persistent adult offenders.As a result it will be evident that in their late teens the adolescents will be able to grown out of crime and will be able to work on their social circles basically due to their education and good social integration skills. Academic failure, broken relationships and neuropsychological handicaps on the other hand doom the adult offender to a life of deviancy (Moffitt, 1993 1994 cited in Sampson and Laub, 2003). This theory therefore separates offenders into two distinct groups each with very unique characteristics check intod by childhood factors, and only those who fall into the correct group have any hope of desistance. Sampson and Laub (2003 2005a 2005b) have strongly criticized this developmental approach to explaining desistance, and state that, there is no such thing as a fo re-told life course persister (2003179). They explain that desistance is achievable for ant type of offender no matter which group they are in whether adolescent or adults. According to them childhood factors of offence do not determine desistance but instead help to explain the whole process of desistance.Gottfredson and Hirschi claim that offenders simply stop offending because of the natural aging of the individual (1995 cited in Sampson and Laub, 2003). They forecast out that for any organism there is always a stage of discontinuity that applies to criminology and the study of desistance and its links with age. Therefore desistance is a natural process for any offender. Maruna (2001) however does not fully agree with this because according to him desistance, especially at the beginning, takes a huge amount of emotional, psychological and even physical effort and resources. Gluecks (1943) agrees with this too because he highlighted that desistance was the result of a process of matu cerebral reform, meat, an offender gradually grows out of crime (cited in Sampson and Laub, 2003). This maturation process usually starts after age 25 when a criminal is able to settle down as the crime rate reduces gradually. However this theory has besides been criticized as it does not probe into the meaning of age instead it assumes that the process of aging itself is amenable for desistance (Maruna, 2001 Sampson and Laub, 2003). Acknowledging that age is a significant factor in desistance, Sampson and Laub (1992) state that maturational reform does not satisfactorily search its significance in relation to social bonds and life turn points (cited in Maruna, 2001). animateness Course TheoryA significant study on 500 men up to the age of 32 was carried in the 1930s and 1940s by the Gluecks (1943 cited in Sampson and Laub, 2003 2005a 2005b). Sampson and Laub later on in an impressive research followed up on 52 of these men and investigated on their criminal career to the age of 70. They found out that the causes of desistance and persistence are actually opposites, namely the development of social controls, structured routine activities and purposeful productive human office (Sampson and Laub, 2003 2005a 2005b 2006). Their finding indicated that job stability, military service and matrimony were able to exactingly generate to achieving desistance. These turning points were realized in the process of desistance whereby an offender seeks to start a new life by changing location or even first a new job like entering the military for example. This however does not necessarily involve starting over, sometimes these offenders work to gain back and maintain their original contacts like a job or a marriage in their quest to stop their criminal tendencies. Whichever path desistance takes these turning points a lot lead toa knifing off of the past from the leaveopportunities for investment in new relationships that offer social support, growth, and new social networksforms of direct and indirect management and monitoring of behaviorstructured routines that center more on family life and less unstructured time with peerssituations that provide an opportunity for identity transformation and that allow for the emergence of a new self or bookThese factors, they explain are true and are not affected by the type of marriage and the crime life of an individual , though informal, cohabiting and parenthood have also been linked to successful desistance (Sampson and Laub, 2006 Katz, 1999). Individuals with none of these social bonds are also more able to stop offending because, they have nothing to lose. Rebecca Katz (199913) indicates that, families of procreation may play a significant role in developing desistance since family influences self control and delinquency. Life course theory emphasizes on the strong influence of the social environment to offending explaining that absence of criminal peers reduces the bumps of an individual ever engaging in offences and then attitudes and beliefs favorable to conformity will develop (Warr, 1998 cited in Sampson and Laub, 2003). Life Course Theory contradicts the link between developmental theories in criminal careers and desistance. It agrees that adulthood experiences are essential as well but to some point more significant in establishing the possible trajectory of desistance (2003).Offenders desist as a result of individual actions (choice) in conjunction with situational contexts and structural influences linked to key institutions that help sustain desistance. As such we argued that desistance is a process rather than an event, and that It must be continually renewed. This fundamental theme underscores the need to examine individual motivation and the social context in which individuals are embedded. (Sampson and Laub, 2003171)AgencyYet another essential element that has been pointed out as key in achieving successful desistance is agency. (Burnett, 2004 Maruna, 2001 McNeill, 2006 Maguire et al, 2006 Maruna, 2001 Sampson and Laub, 2005 a). The theory of rational offence understands the fact that a criminal is able to make decisions base on his judgment of what is good or bad according to him in his crime life. Agency therefore works hand in hand with rational choice in the key decision making processes of a criminal. Agency is important since it assists in the overall process of making a rational choice. Furthermore, considering the very much irrational patterns of offending of many criminals, and the many economic and social constraints offenders live under, rational choice theory alone cannot account for decisions to desist (Burnett, 2004 Sampson and Laub, 2005b). In their study of the Gluecks men Sampson and Laub (2005a) found that agency was a vital component in successful desistance. There is more to the structural support in the process of desistance, agency is required to offer the determination and persistence part of the equatio n. Agency determines the will to keep moving on and only those who are persistent will be able to manage the whole process. This will to desist and the internationalization of responsibility to overcome the challenges offenders face as they undergo desistance (Maruna, 2001), is very difficult to measure or predict and introduces a seemingly random component into life course turning points, making neat prediction inherently a difficult endeavor (Sampson and Laub, 2005a177). Moreover it is a quintessential component in the study of desistance and persistence in a criminal career that has however not been fully researched to date. In their research of the life course theory of life Sampson and Laub assert that they have been seeking to explain the importance of the human agency as an aid in understanding desistance and other deviance forms (2003177).Knifing off ones past, has come out to be a vital element to describe the ability to be able to accomplish a successful desistance for som e individuals. To achieve this voluntarily, agency is necessary since it is one of the most difficult things to do and needs a lot of determination. It is a process that is more often accompanied by cutting all past contacts and establishing new ones for example geographical location and family. Most importantly though, Maruna et al (2006a) explained that it can as well involve internal change, or a change in the way the offender views themselves, their past, and their environment. This change in the individuals thinking is vital for the sustainment of long term desistance (Maruna, 2001 Sampson and Laub, 2003 2005a Maguire et al, 2006).Contemplation time was found to be a crucial moment that assisted in creating a turning point to desistance according to a study by Margaret Hughes (1998). And it was found that the opportunity to contemplate came as a result of a change in geographical location, imprisonment and residential treatment programmes. Hughes participants found their appe tite to change develop when they removed from the usual environments and being able to get ample time for self actualization.Social identityResearchers have tried to explain the phenomenon whereby some individual are able to sustain long term resistance while others do not, and it has been discovered that by from agency, an individuals self identity change is similarly necessary. The chance of an ex-offender remaining crime free very much depends upon developing a new identity, and new determine and beliefs that were not compatible with criminal offending (Burnett, 2004). For sure, a significant amount of work done in rehabilitating offenders and addicts, such as 12 Step and cognitive behavioral therapy, targets change in the individuals self-perception (Maruna, 2001).Each and every individual, whether an ex-offender, offender or normal citizen has a unique self identity through which their actions are channelise upon, it is therefore as a result of this mechanisms that give peop le the different circumstances they exist in. Crucially, self- levels provide a subjective account of the meanings that offenders place upon changes and turning points in their lives (McNiell, 2006).More often though not a fact self narratives have been of assistance when people seek to explain their actions. Narratives very often change throughout the life course and understanding narratives, helps individuals realize the significance of past and present events in our lives (Sampson and Laub, 2005a).In a desistance study in Liverpool, Shadd Maruna investigated the different self narratives of two distinct groups of offenders whereby one persisted and the other desisted, to account for the changes in ex-offender identities (Maruna, 2001). He was able to find out that both the desisting and persistent criminals actually had more or less the same personality characteristics and were not as agreeable and conscious as the general population. Self-narratives are the only components that divided the two groups after innate interviews. Active offenders had what Maruna described as a, condemnation handwriting (2001), meaning, they saw life as an unfortunate abyss of hostility and uncertainty. They believed that circumstances had pushed them to their present situation and there was nothing they could do to change things and that the authority pushed them even further away. Desisting ex-offenders on the other hand had a haughty observatory on their past and present and this is what assisted them to continue with their desistance process. It is this self-narrative that may be the tool needed for successful desistance.The self-narrative of the ex-offenders holds a version of the truth that is often quite different from historical truth (Maruna et al, 2007). This self narrative attaches a psychological component to the real facts of the past and creates a purpose and meaning in the life of an offender. This is what brings about the positive outlook and assists in achie ving desistance. In a study focused completely on religious changes of rehabilitated offenders, Maruna et al discovered that their self-narrative was interestingly changed by their conversion experience (Maruna et al, 2006b). As a result the importance of this self narrative is once more highlighted as it helps an offender realize that the past can be changed and that the future has a hope even for those in long sentences. The offender is therefore able to have a new sense of identity, empowerment, purpose and forgiveness.The self narratives of most offenders in the desisting group have a common characteristic Maruna describes as, the redemption script (2001). This is basically the belief that an offender is a good person and that his or her past was merely as a result of circumstances of crime, recidivism and addiction. As a result of this, the offenders are able to endeavor to live new lives as they continue in with their desistance. They are then able to view themselves as role m odels with the necessary knowledge and experience to advice and educate the next generations, something Maruna calls, Making Good. The major difference therefore between the desisting offenders and the persistent ones is the positive energy they surround themselves with.Confidence and self belief are as a result pointed out to be essential qualities as they guide an offender to understand that their past was a necessary component for them to be where they are at the present. This redemptive narrative helps them realize that they are not their past and that their future is what that matters. The be intimatement of a supreme power beyond them has also been a contributing factor in the lives of these offenders. This is because they realize that their past king have been a plan to give them the positions they hold in the present, like being counselors and youth leaders. This moral superiority and change from the past, according to Maruna, is to make up for long stretches of lost life. During desistance according to Stephen Farrall some offenders undergo long periods of creating new social identities (200685). However much these offenders change, it is not disregarded that they acknowledge they are responsible for their criminal past. The idea that reformed criminals occupy blame and feel shame for all of their crimes is not supported by research (Maruna, 2007). Successful offenders in desistance often admit to the guilt of their past but they however rationalize their actions and justify or blame themselves and accept that circumstances might have pushed them to criminality. Sometimes however they do not accept their actions and believe that the golf club pushed them to crime. Such a belief system would not encourage an ex-offender to accept responsibility for breaking laws that they perceived to be based on middle class values, and representative of a society that had neglected and mistreated them (Maruna, 2001).The Liverpool Desistance Study settle that a c oncurrent characteristic of the redemption script is an offender accepting to take control of changing his future however they do not acknowledge their past crimes. An internalization of full responsibility for their future, including the determination to overcome the many obstacles they will face, seems to be a defining feature of successful desisting ex-offenders. Maruna (200188) summarizes the themes of the desisting persons narrative asan establishment of the core beliefs that characterize the persons true selfan optimistic perception (some might say useful illusion) of personal control over ones destinythe desire to be productive and give something back to society, particularly the next generationMoffitt Adolescence-Limited and Life-Course-Persistent Antisocial Behavior A Developmental TaxonomyMoffitts (1993) concept of dual taxonomy of offending similarly tries to explain the processes of desistance and persistence. Moffitt (ibid) outlined that offenders can be grouped into tw o adolescent limiteds and life persisters. Moffitt proposes that the two groups are different and unique from each other in their offence and desistance processes, with the life course persisters having a different aetiology to the adolescent limited offenders. It is explained that they may be suffering neurological problems that affects their cognitive and learning skills. This is therefore evidenced by poor social skills even in the family leading to the various forms of anti social behavior and poor self control Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990). proterozoic signs of antisocial behavior are a common characteristic of life course persisters (for example under-age drinking, premarital sex) as a result they are often excommunicated from their initial societal setting because of poor behavior, development and social bonds. Early signs of antisocial behaviors like these are normally a clear indication of a persistent criminal career in the future. This will be in connection to the age g raded theory meaning there patterns of crime will be different and theirs will be a continuous cycle of events of affected marriages, work, education and relationships.Moffitt continues to explain that unlike life course persisters, adolescent limited offenders are not affected by any neurological problems and are able to successfully develop their social networks and cognitive skills. Therefore the causal factors for their criminality are connected to the gap between social development, age and desires. Age for example prevents them from engaging in adult behavior like sex or drinking. As a result of deviance from their desires, they tend to associate with the life course persister leading to the growth of their deviance. However, due to their developed social skills and academic success they are likely to be able to change more easily if they choose desistance. This is because they will be able to depend on their strong social bonds for support.Maruna (cited Laub Sampson 2001) ex plains that finding continuity in the criminality maybe be caused by methodology, by concentrating on dispositional traits to the exclusion of other personality traits. People can be able to change as Laub and Sampson write, even if their characteristic personality traits do not change radically with time. In order to understand desistance , researchers need to explore other aspects of personality such as offender self-perceptions or personal strategies Maruna (cited ibid).Narrative scriptThere are two distinct narrative script types in the desistance literature that highlight how criminals really view themselves and their societal roles.For the persisters their script usually has a concurrent theme of condemnation. More often they blame outer conditions like poor family relations and lack of education for their criminality. They generally have an external locus of control.In contrast the offenders who finally become successful in desistance have a redemption script. They are compl ete opposites of the latter and are fully responsible for their actions. As a result they make a positive choice to stop the crime by accepting rehabilitation programmes. They are described to have an internal locus of control.Factors that influence the particular narrative script that gets adopted by a criminal are majorly internal factors such as personality and genetics especially after rehabilitation. A higher chance of a redemptive script is noted to be as a result of intense rehabilitation.A probation workers relationship with an offender has also been linked to affect desistance. It is there important for these officers to have empathy skills that are crucial in the process of guiding an offender to desistance as they strive to be able to re-integrate back into the society.relevancy of desistance theoryThe desistance theory is relevant in a number of different applied and academic professions. The desistance theory to researchers may provide a foundation to be able to examine the different factors that contribute to the cessation of a criminal offence from a theoretical view. The desistance theory allows for a number of different crimes in history and their approaches like the Lombrosian biological positivism, to have consideration in the present society which has an evident difference in its ways of thinking. As a result criminology is more understood and its relationship with other disciplines like psychology, politics and social policy acknowledged. This will consequently allow the development of collaboration for a positive cause of reducing re offence rates.The desistance theory on a practical level has assisted the criminal justice system (CJS) to identify possible solutions to cases of reoffending of successful candidates of desistance through for example initiating community based sentences. This kind of programme is sure to gradually decrease the number of criminals in HM Prison serve up institutions for short periods.Studies have shown that s hort-term sentences in prisons for example (those for less than six months) often lead to increased crime rates after release. This is well explained by the fact that these short-term prisoners to not undergo complete metamorphosis from not covering all the rehabilitation programs. Their exposure to the hard core criminals in the prisons who have been there for longer and have been experienced criminals also contributes to their overall change.In addition desistance theory assists in the continuous development of training programmes for the respective professionals responsible for working with ex-offenders in the community. For example the Probation Service (see Narrative script section, above).ControversiesIt is important for the general humankind to realize that desistance is achievable and takes time. Offenders should therefore not be viewed as bad people who cannot live with others even after rehabilitation programs. The public is therefore advised not to discriminate these gro ups of people in their society.Reintegration cases of offenders back into the society have always caused massive outrages by a large percentage of the public community. There are numerous related cases of such circumstances that have often been quite difficult and delicate to handle. For example in 2011, the case of the reintegration of Jason Owen who was initially convicted of playing some part, albeit minimal, in the widely reported death of babe P (now known to be Peter Connelly) in 2007, and after serving his sentence for causing or allowing the death of Peter he was later released in 2011. The Sun newspaper immediately kicked off a campaign to find him. Readers were urged to write and report to the newspaper of any knowledge of his whereabouts. There was an article in the same newspaper that sent sentiments of outrage over the fact that the ex-convict had actually tried to find a job.This is a clear indication of how the effort of successful psychological research can be nulli fied by news reports in the popular media. This kind of outrageous reporting is especially a common characteristic of Tabloid newspapers. Their influence over the public is often impressive and they are as a result able to manipulate and affect the attitudes of the wider public towards their view of desistance and offenders. As a result of this, future recidivism is often developed gradually due to the ill-informed public. Newspapers then use this recidivism as proof of their initial correctness. terminus